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A review of guidelines and best practices for subsonic aerodynamic simulations using RANS CFD
(2019)
Next-generation aircraft designs often incorporate multiple large propellers attached along the wingspan. These highly flexible dynamic systems can exhibit uncommon aeroelastic instabilities, which should be carefully investigated to ensure safe operation. The interaction between the propeller and the wing is of particular importance. It is known that whirl flutter is stabilized by wing motion and wing aerodynamics. This paper investigates the effect of a propeller onto wing flutter as a function of span position and mounting stiffness between the propeller and wing. The analysis of a comparison between a tractor and pusher configuration has shown that the coupled system is more stable than the standalone wing for propeller positions near the wing tip for both configurations. The wing fluttermechanism is mostly affected by the mass of the propeller and the resulting change in eigenfrequencies of the wing. For very weak mounting stiffnesses, whirl flutter occurs, which was shown to be stabilized compared to a standalone propeller due to wing motion. On the other hand, the pusher configuration is, as to be expected, the more critical configuration due to the attached mass behind the elastic axis.
This paper presents a thermal simulation environment for moving objects on the lunar surface. The goal of the thermal simulation environment is to enable the reliable prediction of the temperature development of a given object on the lunar surface by providing the respective heat fluxes for a mission on a given travel path. The user can import any object geometry and freely define the path that the object should travel. Using the path of the object, the relevant lunar surface geometry is imported from a digital elevation model. The relevant parts of the lunar surface are determined based on distance to the defined path. A thermal model of these surface sections is generated, consisting of a porous layer on top and a denser layer below. The object is moved across the lunar surface, and its inclination is adapted depending on the slope of the terrain below it. Finally, a transient thermal analysis of the object and its environment is performed at several positions on its path and the results are visualized. The paper introduces details on the thermal modeling of the lunar surface, as well as its verification. Furthermore, the structure of the created software is presented. The robustness of the environment is verified with the help of sensitivity studies and possible improvements are presented.
Next-generation aircraft designs often incorporate multiple large propellers attached along the wingspan (distributed electric propulsion), leading to highly flexible dynamic systems that can exhibit aeroelastic instabilities. This paper introduces a validated methodology to investigate the aeroelastic instabilities of wing–propeller systems and to understand the dynamic mechanism leading to wing and whirl flutter and transition from one to the other. Factors such as nacelle positions along the wing span and chord and its propulsion system mounting stiffness are considered. Additionally, preliminary design guidelines are proposed for flutter-free wing–propeller systems applicable to novel aircraft designs. The study demonstrates how the critical speed of the wing–propeller systems is influenced by the mounting stiffness and propeller position. Weak mounting stiffnesses result in whirl flutter, while hard mounting stiffnesses lead to wing flutter. For the latter, the position of the propeller along the wing span may change the wing mode shapes and thus the flutter mechanism. Propeller positions closer to the wing tip enhance stability, but pusher configurations are more critical due to the mass distribution behind the elastic axis.
The impact of wake model effects is investigated for two highly
non-planar lifting systems. Dependent on the geometrical
arrangement of the configuration, the wake model shape is found
to considerably affect the estimation. Particularly at higher angles
of attack, an accurate estimation based on the common linear wake
model approaches is involved.
To fulfil the CO2 emission reduction targets of the European Union (EU), heavy-duty (HD) trucks need to operate 15% more efficiently by 2025 and 30% by 2030. Their electrification is necessary as conventional HD trucks are already optimized for the long-haul application. The resulting hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) truck gains most of the fuel saving potential by the recuperation of potential energy and its consecutive utilization. The key to utilizing the full potential of HEV-HD trucks is to maximize the amount of recuperated energy and ensure its intelligent usage while keeping the operating point of the internal combustion engine as efficient as possible. To achieve this goal, an intelligent energy management strategy (EMS) based on ECMS is developed for a parallel HEV-HD truck which uses predictive discharge of the battery and adaptive operating strategy regarding the height profile and the vehicle mass. The presented EMS can reproduce the global optimal operating strategy over long phases and lead to a fuel saving potential of up to 2% compared with a heuristic strategy. Furthermore, the fuel saving potential is correlated with the investigated boundary conditions to deepen the understanding of the impact of intelligent EMS for HEV-HD trucks.
This paper primarily presents an aerodynamic CFD analysis of a winged spaceplane geometry based on the Japanese Space Walker proposal. StarCCM was used to calculate aerodynamic coefficients for a typical space flight trajectory including super-, trans- and subsonic Mach numbers and two angles of attack. Since the solution of the RANS equations in such supersonic flight regimes is still computationally expensive, inviscid Euler simulations can principally lead to a significant reduction in computational effort. The impact on accuracy of aerodynamic properties is further analysed by comparing both methods for different flight regimes up to a Mach number of 4.
This paper discusses a new way of inflight power regeneration for electric or hybrid-electric driven general aviation aircraft with one powertrain for both configurations. Three different approaches for the shift from propulsion to regeneration mode are analyzed. Numerical cal-culation and wind tunnel results are compared and show the highest regeneration potential for the "Windmill" approach, where the propeller blades are flipped, and rotation is reversed. A combination of all regeneration approaches for a realistic flight mission is discussed.
In the chapter “Son of Concorde, a Technology Challenge” one of the new challenges for a Supersonic Commercial Transport (SCT) is multi-point design for the four main design points:
- supersonic cruise
- transonic cruise
- take-off and landing
- transonic acceleration.
This paper presents a novel method for airfoil drag estimation at Reynolds numbers between 4×10⁵ and 4×10⁶. The novel method is based on a systematic study of 40 airfoils applying over 600 numerical simulations and considering natural transition. The influence of the airfoil thickness-to-chord ratio, camber, and freestream Reynolds number on both friction and pressure drag is analyzed in detail. Natural transition significantly affects drag characteristics and leads to distinct drag minima for different Reynolds numbers and thickness-to-chord ratios. The results of the systematic study are used to develop empirical correlations that can accurately predict an airfoil drag at low-lift conditions. The new approach estimates a transition location based on airfoil thickness-to-chord ratio, camber, and Reynolds number. It uses the transition location in a mixed laminar–turbulent skin-friction calculation, and corrects the skin-friction coefficient for separation effects. Pressure drag is estimated separately based on correlations of thickness-to-chord ratio, camber, and Reynolds number. The novel method shows excellent accuracy when compared with wind-tunnel measurements of multiple airfoils. It is easily integrable into existing aircraft design environments and is highly beneficial in the conceptual design stage.
The development of Gossamer sail structures for solar sails contributes to a large field of future space applications like thin film solar generators, membrane antennas and drag sails. The focus of this paper is the development of a drag sail based on solar sail technology that could contribute to a reduction of space debris in low Earth orbits. The drag sail design and its connections to solar sail development, a first test on a sounding rocket, as well as the ongoing integration of the drag sail into a triple CubeSat is presented.
In modernen Fahrzeugkarosserien der Großserie kommen zunehmend Materialmischbauweisen zur Anwendung. In Zusammenarbeit der Daimler AG, der Tower Automotive Holding GmbH, der Imperia GmbH sowie der Partnerunternehmen KSM Castings GmbH und Schaufler Tooling GmbH & Co. KG wird das Leichtbaupotenzial von Aluminiumverbundguss-Stahlblech-Hybriden am Beispiel des vorderen Dachquerträgers des Mercedes-Benz Viano/Vito ausführlich untersucht.
In this paper, an approach to propulsion system modelling for hybrid-electric general aviation aircraft is presented. Because the focus is on general aviation aircraft, only combinations of electric motors and reciprocating combustion engines are explored. Gas turbine hybrids will not be considered. The level of the component's models is appropriate for the conceptual design stage. They are simple and adaptable, so that a wide range of designs with morphologically different propulsive system architectures can be quickly compared. Modelling strategies for both mass and efficiency of each part of the propulsion system (engine, motor, battery and propeller) will be presented.
In this work, the effect of low air relative humidity on the operation of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell is investigated. An innovative method through performing in situ electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is utilised to quantify the effect of inlet air relative humidity at the cathode side on internal ionic resistances and output voltage of the fuel cell. In addition, algorithms are developed to analyse the electrochemical characteristics of the fuel cell. For the specific fuel cell stack used in this study, the membrane resistance drops by over 39 % and the cathode side charge transfer resistance decreases by 23 % after increasing the humidity from 30 % to 85 %, while the results of static operation also show an increase of ∼2.2 % in the voltage output after increasing the relative humidity from 30 % to 85 %. In dynamic operation, visible drying effects occur at < 50 % relative humidity, whereby the increase of the air side stoichiometry increases the drying effects. Furthermore, other parameters, such as hydrogen humidification, internal stack structure, and operating parameters like stoichiometry, pressure, and temperature affect the overall water balance. Therefore, the optimal humidification range must be determined by considering all these parameters to maximise the fuel cell performance and durability. The results of this study are used to develop a health management system to ensure sufficient humidification by continuously monitoring the fuel cell polarisation data and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy indicators.
An Interstellar – Heliopause mission using a combination of solar/radioisotope electric propulsion
(2011)
There is common agreement within the scientific community that in order to understand our local galactic environment it will be necessary to send a spacecraft into the region beyond the solar wind termination shock. Considering distances of 200 AU for a new mission, one needs a spacecraft travelling at a speed of close to 10 AU/yr in order to keep the mission duration in the range of less than 25 yrs, a transfer time postulated by ESA.Two propulsion options for the mission have been proposed and discussed so far: the solar sail propulsion and the ballistic/radioisotope electric propulsion. As a further alternative, we here investigate a combination of solar-electric propulsion and radioisotope-electric propulsion. The solar-electric propulsion stage consists of six 22 cm diameter “RIT-22”ion thrusters working with a high specific impulse of 7377 s corresponding to a positive grid voltage of 5 kV. Solar power of 53 kW BOM is provided by a light-weight solar array. The REP-stage consists of four space-proven 10 cm diameter “RIT-10” ion thrusters that will be operating one after the other for 9 yrs in total. Four advanced radioisotope generators provide 648 W at BOM. The scientific instrument package is oriented at earlier studies. For its mass and electric power requirement 35 kg and 35 W are assessed, respectively. Optimized trajectory calculations, treated in a separate contribution, are based on our “InTrance” method.The program yields a burn out of the REP stage in a distance of 79.6 AU for a usage of 154 kg of Xe propellant. With a C3 = 45,1 (km/s)2 a heliocentric probe velocity of 10 AU/yr is reached at this distance, provided a close Jupiter gravity assist adds a velocity increment of 2.7 AU/yr. A transfer time of 23.8 yrs results for this scenario requiring about 450 kg Xe for the SEP stage, jettisoned at 3 AU. We interpret the SEP/REP propulsion as a competing alternative to solar sail and ballistic/REP propulsion. Omiting a Jupiter fly-by even allows more launch flexibility, leaving the mission duration in the range of the ESA specification.
An overview on dry low NOx micromix combustor development for hydrogen-rich gas turbine applications
(2019)
Analyse der Temperatur- und Strömungsungleichförmigkeiten in mehrstufigen Turbinen / Harald Funke
(2001)
We present a new approach to the problem of optimal control of solar sails for low-thrust trajectory optimization. The objective was to find the required control torque magnitudes in order to steer a solar sail in interplanetary space. A new steering strategy, controlling the solar sail with generic torques applied about the spacecraft body axes, is integrated into the existing low-thrust trajectory optimization software InTrance. This software combines artificial neural networks and evolutionary algorithms to find steering strategies close to the global optimum without an initial guess. Furthermore, we implement a three rotational degree-of-freedom rigid-body attitude dynamics model to represent the solar sail in space. Two interplanetary transfers to Mars and Neptune are chosen to represent typical future solar sail mission scenarios. The results found with the new steering strategy are compared to the existing reference trajectories without attitude dynamics. The resulting control torques required to accomplish the missions are investigated, as they pose the primary requirements to a real on-board attitude control system.
Anmerkungen zur DIN EN 12101-2 über die Prüfung von natürlichen Rauch- und Wärmeabzugsanlagen (NRGW)
(2006)
Auch in der allgemeinen Luftfahrt wäre es wünschenswert, die bereits vorhandenen Verbrennungsmotoren mit weniger CO₂-trächtigen Kraftstoffen als dem heute weit verbreiteten Avgas 100LL betreiben zu können. Es ist anzunehmen, dass im Vergleich die unter Normalbedingungen gasförmigen Kraftstoffe CNG, LPG oder LNG deutlich weniger Emissionen produzieren. Erforderliche Antriebssystemanpassungen wurden im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojekts an der FH Aachen untersucht.
Anwendung moderner Simulationstools für die Entwicklung eines elektromagnetischen Ventilaktuators
(1998)
Prolonged operations close to small solar system bodies require a sophisticated control logic to minimize propellant mass and maximize operational efficiency. A control logic based on Discrete Mechanics and Optimal Control (DMOC) is proposed and applied to both conventionally propelled and solar sail spacecraft operating at an arbitrarily shaped asteroid in the class of Itokawa. As an example, stand-off inertial hovering is considered, recently identified as a challenging part of the Marco Polo mission. The approach is easily extended to stand-off orbits. We show that DMOC is applicable to spacecraft control at small objects, in particular with regard to the fact that the changes in gravity are exploited by the algorithm to optimally control the spacecraft position. Furthermore, we provide some remarks on promising developments.
Application of Low NOx Micro-mix Hydrogen Combustion to 2MW Class Industrial Gas Turbine Combustor
(2019)
Environmental emissions, global warming, and energy-related concerns have accelerated the advancements in conventional vehicles that primarily use internal combustion engines. Among the existing technologies, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles may have minimal contributions to greenhouse gas emissions and thus are the prime choices for environmental concerns. However, energy management in fuel cell electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles is a major challenge. Appropriate control strategies should be used for effective energy management in these vehicles. On the other hand, there has been significant progress in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and designing data-driven intelligent controllers. These techniques have found much attention within the community, and state-of-the-art energy management technologies have been developed based on them. This manuscript reviews the application of machine learning and intelligent controllers for prediction, control, energy management, and vehicle to everything (V2X) in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The effectiveness of data-driven control and optimization systems are investigated to evolve, classify, and compare, and future trends and directions for sustainability are discussed.
Attitude and Orbital Dynamics Modeling for an Uncontrolled Solar-Sail Experiment in Low-Earth Orbit
(2015)
Gossamer-1 is the first project of the three-step Gossamer roadmap, the purpose of which is to develop, prove and demonstrate that solar-sail technology is a safe and reliable propulsion technique for long-lasting and high-energy missions. This paper firstly presents the structural analysis performed on the sail to understand its elastic behavior. The results are then used in attitude and orbital simulations. The model considers the main forces and torques that a satellite experiences in low-Earth orbit coupled with the sail deformation. Doing the simulations for varying initial conditions in attitude and rotation rate, the results show initial states to avoid and maximum rotation rates reached for correct and faulty deployment of the sail. Lastly comparisons with the classic flat sail model are carried out to test the hypothesis that the elastic behavior does play a role in the attitude and orbital behavior of the sail
Elektromagnetischer Aktuator zur Betätigung eines Stellgliedes (2), mit wenigstens einem Elektromagneten (4) und einem mit dem Stellglied (2) verbundenen Anker (3), der gegen die Kraft einer Rückstellfeder (6) aus seiner Ruhelage in Richtung auf den Elektromagneten (4) bewegbar ist, mit einer Rückstellfeder (6), die eine nicht lineare, bezogen auf die Ruhelage des Ankers (3) progressiv ansteigende Kennlinie aufweist.
Auslegung der CFK-Sandwich-Rumpfstruktur eines Hubschraubers mit der Methode der Finiten Elemente
(1994)
Having well-defined control strategies for fuel cells, that can efficiently detect errors and take corrective action is critically important for safety in all applications, and especially so in aviation. The algorithms not only ensure operator safety by monitoring the fuel cell and connected components, but also contribute to extending the health of the fuel cell, its durability and safe operation over its lifetime. While sensors are used to provide peripheral data surrounding the fuel cell, the internal states of the fuel cell cannot be directly measured. To overcome this restriction, Kalman Filter has been implemented as an internal state observer.
Other safety conditions are evaluated using real-time data from every connected sensor and corrective actions automatically take place to ensure safety. The algorithms discussed in this paper have been validated thorough Model-in-the-Loop (MiL) tests as well as practical validation at a dedicated test bench.
Combined with the use of renewable energy sources for
its production, Hydrogen represents a possible alternative gas
turbine fuel for future low emission power generation. Due to
its different physical properties compared to other fuels such
as natural gas, well established gas turbine combustion
systems cannot be directly applied for Dry Low NOx (DLN)
Hydrogen combustion. This makes the development of new
combustion technologies an essential and challenging task
for the future of hydrogen fueled gas turbines.
The newly developed and successfully tested “DLN
Micromix” combustion technology offers a great potential to
burn hydrogen in gas turbines at very low NOx emissions.
Aiming to further develop an existing burner design in terms
of increased energy density, a redesign is required in order to
stabilise the flames at higher mass flows and to maintain low
emission levels.
For this purpose, a systematic design exploration has
been carried out with the support of CFD and optimisation
tools to identify the interactions of geometrical and design
parameters on the combustor performance. Aerodynamic
effects as well as flame and emission formation are observed
and understood time- and cost-efficiently. Correlations
between single geometric values, the pressure drop of the
burner and NOx production have been identified as a result.
This numeric methodology helps to reduce the effort of
manufacturing and testing to few designs for single
validation campaigns, in order to confirm the flame stability
and NOx emissions in a wider operating condition field.
Wind-induced operational variability is one of the major challenges for structural health monitoring of slender engineering structures like aircraft wings or wind turbine blades. Damage sensitive features often show an even bigger sensitivity to operational variability. In this study a composite cantilever was subjected to multiple mass configurations, velocities and angles of attack in a controlled wind tunnel environment. A small-scale impact damage was introduced to the specimen and the structural response measurements were repeated. The proposed damage detection methodology is based on automated operational modal analysis. A novel baseline preparation procedure is described that reduces the amount of user interaction to the provision of a single consistency threshold. The procedure starts with an indeterminate number of operational modal analysis identifications from a large number of datasets and returns a complete baseline matrix of natural frequencies and damping ratios that is suitable for subsequent anomaly detection. Mahalanobis distance-based anomaly detection is then applied to successfully detect the damage under varying severities of operational variability and with various degrees of knowledge about the present operational conditions. The damage detection capabilities of the proposed methodology were found to be excellent under varying velocities and angles of attack. Damage detection was less successful under joint mass and wind variability but could be significantly improved through the provision of the currently encountered operational conditions.
Two- and three-dimensional avalanche dynamics models are being increasingly used in hazard-mitigation studies. These models can provide improved and more accurate results for hazard mapping than the simple one-dimensional models presently used in practice. However, two- and three-dimensional models generate an extensive amount of output data, making the interpretation of simulation results more difficult. To perform a simulation in three-dimensional terrain, numerical models require a digital elevation model, specification of avalanche release areas (spatial extent and volume), selection of solution methods, finding an adequate calculation resolution and, finally, the choice of friction parameters. In this paper, the importance and difficulty of correctly setting up and analysing the results of a numerical avalanche dynamics simulation is discussed. We apply the two-dimensional simulation program RAMMS to the 1968 extreme avalanche event In den Arelen. We show the effect of model input variations on simulation results and the dangers and complexities in their interpretation.
Up in the clouds and above fuels and construction materials must be very carefully selected to ensure a smooth flight and touchdown. Out of around 38,000 single and dual-engined propeller aeroplanes, roughly a third are affected by a new trend in the fuel sector that may lead to operating troubles or even emergency landings: The admixture of bio-ethanol to conventional gasoline. Experiences with these fuels may be projected to alternative mixtures containing new components.
Numerical models have become an essential part of snow avalanche engineering. Recent
advances in understanding the rheology of flowing snow and the mechanics of entrainment and
deposition have made numerical models more reliable. Coupled with field observations and historical
records, they are especially helpful in understanding avalanche flow in complex terrain. However, the
application of numerical models poses several new challenges to avalanche engineers. A detailed
understanding of the avalanche phenomena is required to specify initial conditions (release zone
dimensions and snowcover entrainment rates) as well as the friction parameters, which are no longer
based on empirical back-calculations, rather terrain roughness, vegetation and snow properties. In this
paper we discuss these problems by presenting the computer model RAMMS, which was specially
designed by the SLF as a practical tool for avalanche engineers. RAMMS solves the depth-averaged
equations governing avalanche flow with first and second-order numerical solution schemes. A
tremendous effort has been invested in the implementation of advanced input and output features.
Simulation results are therefore clearly and easily visualized to simplify their interpretation. More
importantly, RAMMS has been applied to a series of well-documented avalanches to gauge model
performance. In this paper we present the governing differential equations, highlight some of the input
and output features of RAMMS and then discuss the simulation of the Gatschiefer avalanche that
occurred in April 2008, near Klosters/Monbiel, Switzerland.
The invention pertains to a CellDrum electrode arrangement for measuring mechanical stress, comprising a mechanical holder (1 ) and a non-conductive membrane (4), whereby the membrane (4) is at least partially fixed at its circumference to the mechanical holder (1), keeping it in place when the membrane (4) may bend due to forces acting on the membrane (4), the mechanical holder (1) and the membrane (4) forming a container, whereby the membrane (1) within the container comprises an cell- membrane compound layer or biological material (3) adhered to the deformable membrane 4 which in response to stimulation by an agent may exert mechanical stress to the membrane (4) such that the membrane bending stage changes whereby the container may be filled with an electrolyte, whereby an electric contact (2) is arranged allowing to contact said electrolyte when filled into to the container, whereby within a predefined geometry to the fixing of the membrane (4) an electrode (7) is arranged, whereby the electrode (7) is electrically insulated with respect to the electric contact (2) as well as said electrolyte, whereby mechanical stress due to an agent may be measured as a change in capacitance.
Since certification of Concorde new certification standards were introduced including many new regulations to improve flight safety. Most of these standards are to prevent severe accidents in the future which happened in the past (here: after Concorde’s certification). A new SCT has to fulfill these standards, although Concorde had none of these accidents. But accidents - although they sometimes occurred only for a specific aircraft type - have to be avoided for any (new) aircraft. Because of existing aircraft without typical accident types having demonstrated their reliability, they are allowed to go on based on their old certification; although sometimes new rules prevent accident types which are not connected to specific aircraft types - like e.g. evacuation rules. Anyway, Concorde is allowed to fly based on its old certification, and hopefully in the future will fly as safely as in the past. But a new SCT has to fulfill updated rules like any other aircraft, and it has to be “just another aircraft” [75].
Combined with the use of renewable energy sources for its production, Hydrogen represents a possible alternative gas turbine fuel within future low emission power generation. Due to the large difference in the physical properties of Hydrogen compared to other fuels such as natural gas, well established gas turbine combustion systems cannot be directly applied for Dry Low NOx (DLN) Hydrogen combustion. Thus, the development of DLN combustion technologies is an essential and challenging task for the future of Hydrogen fuelled gas turbines. The DLN Micromix combustion principle for hydrogen fuel has been developed to significantly reduce NOx-emissions. This combustion principle is based on cross-flow mixing of air and gaseous hydrogen which reacts in multiple miniaturized diffusion-type flames. The major advantages of this combustion principle are the inherent safety against flash-back and the low NOx-emissions due to a very short residence time of reactants in the flame region of the micro-flames. The Micromix Combustion technology has been already proven experimentally and numerically for pure Hydrogen fuel operation at different energy density levels. The aim of the present study is to analyze the influence of different geometry parameter variations on the flame structure and the NOx emission and to identify the most relevant design parameters, aiming to provide a physical understanding of the Micromix flame sensitivity to the burner design and identify further optimization potential of this innovative combustion technology while increasing its energy density and making it mature enough for real gas turbine application. The study reveals great optimization potential of the Micromix Combustion technology with respect to the DLN characteristics and gives insight into the impact of geometry modifications on flame structure and NOx emission. This allows to further increase the energy density of the Micromix burners and to integrate this technology in industrial gas turbines.