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The purpose of the current study was to examine the reproducibility of fascicle length and pennation angle of gastrocnemius medialis while human walking. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of the reproducibility of fascicle length and pennation angle of gastrocnemius medialis in vivo during human gait. Twelve males performed 10 gait trials on a treadmill, in 2 separate days. B-mode ultrasonography, with the ultrasound probe firmly adjusted in the transverse and frontal planes using a special cast, was used to measure the fascicle length and the pennation angle of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM). A Vicon 624 system with three cameras operating at 120 Hz was also used to record the ankle and knee joint angles. The results showed that measurements of fascicle length and pennation angle showed high reproducibility during the gait cycle, both within the same day and between different days. Moreover, the root mean square differences between the repeated waveforms of both variables were very small, compared with their ranges (fascicle length: RMS = ∼3 mm, range: 38–63 mm; pennation angle: RMS = ∼1.5°, range: 22–32°). However, their reproducibility was lower compared to the joint angles. It was found that representative data have to be derived by a wide number of gait trials (fascicle length ∼six trials, pennation angle more than 10 trials), to assure the reliability of the fascicle length and pennation angle in human gait.
The purpose of the current study in combination with our previous published data (Arampatzis et al., 2007) was to examine the effects of a controlled modulation of strain magnitude and strain frequency applied to the Achilles tendon on the plasticity of tendon mechanical and morphological properties. Eleven male adults (23.9±2.2 yr) participated in the study. The participants exercised one leg at low magnitude tendon strain (2.97±0.47%), and the other leg at high tendon strain magnitude (4.72±1.08%) of similar frequency (0.5 Hz, 1 s loading, 1 s relaxation) and exercise volume (integral of the plantar flexion moment over time) for 14 weeks, 4 days per week, 5 sets per session. The exercise volume was similar to the intervention of our earlier study (0.17 Hz frequency; 3 s loading, 3 s relaxation) allowing a direct comparison of the results. Before and after the intervention ankle joint moment has been measured by a dynamometer, tendon–aponeurosis elongation by ultrasound and cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon by magnet resonance images (MRI). We found a decrease in strain at a given tendon force, an increase in tendon–aponeurosis stiffness and tendon elastic modulus of the Achilles tendon only in the leg exercised at high strain magnitude. The cross-sectional area (CSA) of the Achilles tendon did not show any statistically significant (P>0.05) differences to the pre-exercise values in both legs. The results indicate a superior improvement in tendon properties (stiffness, elastic modulus and CSA) at the low frequency (0.17 Hz) compared to the high strain frequency (0.5 Hz) protocol. These findings provide evidence that the strain magnitude applied to the Achilles tendon should exceed the value, which occurs during habitual activities to trigger adaptational effects and that higher tendon strain duration per contraction leads to superior tendon adaptational responses.
We analyze the influence of dipole-dipole interactions in an electromagnetically induced transparency set up for a density at the onset of cooperative effects. To this end, we include mean-field models for the influence of local-field corrections and radiation trapping into our calculation. We show both analytically and numerically that the polarization contribution to the local field strongly modulates the phase of a weak pulse. We give an intuitive explanation for this local-field-induced phase modulation and demonstrate that it distinctively differs from the nonlinear self-phase-modulation that a strong pulse experiences in a Kerr medium.
Moderne Bauwerke müssen heute eine hohe energetische Leistungsfähigkeit aufweisen und gleichzeitig alle einwirkenden Lasten sicher abtragen. Dies stellt insbesondere in Erdbebengebieten hohe Anforderungen an die verwendeten Baustoffe. Am baupraktischen Beispiel einer Doppelhaushälfte wird demonstriert, dass die Symbiose aus energieeffizientem und gleichzeitig erdbebensicherem Bauen in der höchsten deutschen Erdbebenzone mit monolithischem Ziegelmauerwerk gut realisierbar ist. Als Ziegelmauerwerk werden für die Außenwände wärmetechnisch optimierte Hochlochziegel verwendet, die sowohl die Anforderungen der Energieeinsparverordnung 2009 als auch die Anforderungen an Mauerwerkbaustoffe nach den aktuellen Erdbebennormen erfüllen. Der Erdbebennachweis der Doppelhaushälfte erfolgt mit einem nichtlinearen Nachweisverfahren, das für eine einfache praktische Anwendung programmtechnisch umgesetzt wurde. Für den Nachweis wurden aus zyklischen Schubwandversuchen ermittelte Last-Verformungskurven verwendet. Das gesamte in Deutschland noch nicht normativ geregelte Nachweiskonzept wurde im Rahmen einer Zustimmung im Einzelfall geprüft und genehmigt.
Die Erdbebensicherheit von Gebäuden aus Kalksandsteinmauerwerk ist aktuell nach DIN 4149 mit linearen Verfahren nachzuweisen. Dies führt in der praktischen Anwendung zu großen Problemen, da selbst traditionell übliche Grundrisse teilweise nicht mehr ohne zusätzliche Maßnahmen nachweisbar sind. Zur Lösung dieser Problematik wurden von der deutschen Mauerwerksindustrie auf nationaler und europäischer Ebene Forschungsprojekte initiiert, deren Ergebnisse in Form von statisch nichtlinearen Verfahren Eingang in den Nationalen Anhang zur DIN EN 1998-1 [12] gefunden haben. Mit den Verfahren wird die Nachweissituation zukünftig grundlegend verbessert, da mit diesen die Tragwerksreserven wesentlich besser ausgenutzt werden können. Im Folgenden wird die Anwendung der Verfahren am Beispiel einer Reihenhauszeile aus Kalksandsteinmauerwerk demonstriert. Der Nachweis der Reihenhäuser wurde im Rahmen einer Zustimmung im Einzelfall, die vom Bundesverband Kalksandsteinindustrie eV in Hannover koordiniert wurde, durch unabhängige Gutachter und die Bauaufsicht eingehend geprüft und für richtig befunden. Die Durchführung des Nachweises erfolgte auf Grundlage eines an der RWTH Aachen entwickelten neuen Nachweiskonzeptes. Die baupraktische Anwendbarkeit und einfache Nachvollziehbarkeit dieses Konzepts ist durch eine softwaretechnische Umsetzung sichergestellt.
Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty is vital for simulating technically and economically successful geothermal reservoirs. To this end, we apply a stochastic modelling sequence, a Monte Carlo study, based on (i) creating an ensemble of possible realizations of a reservoir model, (ii) forward simulation of fluid flow and heat transport, and (iii) constraining post-processing using observed state variables. To generate the ensemble, we use the stochastic algorithm of Sequential Gaussian Simulation and test its potential fitting rock properties, such as thermal conductivity and permeability, of a synthetic reference model and—performing a corresponding forward simulation—state variables such as temperature. The ensemble yields probability distributions of rock properties and state variables at any location inside the reservoir. In addition, we perform a constraining post-processing in order to minimize the uncertainty of the obtained distributions by conditioning the ensemble to observed state variables, in this case temperature. This constraining post-processing works particularly well on systems dominated by fluid flow. The stochastic modelling sequence is applied to a large, steady-state 3-D heat flow model of a reservoir in The Hague, Netherlands. The spatial thermal conductivity distribution is simulated stochastically based on available logging data. Errors of bottom-hole temperatures provide thresholds for the constraining technique performed afterwards. This reduce the temperature uncertainty for the proposed target location significantly from 25 to 12 K (full distribution width) in a depth of 2300 m. Assuming a Gaussian shape of the temperature distribution, the standard deviation is 1.8 K. To allow a more comprehensive approach to quantify uncertainty, we also implement the stochastic simulation of boundary conditions and demonstrate this for the basal specific heat flow in the reservoir of The Hague. As expected, this results in a larger distribution width and hence, a larger, but more realistic uncertainty estimate. However, applying the constraining post-processing the uncertainty is again reduced to the level of the post-processing without stochastic boundary simulation. Thus, constraining post-processing is a suitable tool for reducing uncertainty estimates by observed state variables.
Various models have been proposed for the prediction of the necessary support pressure at the face of a shallow tunnel. To assess their quality, the collapse of a tunnel face was modelled with small-scale model tests at single gravity. The development of the failure mechanism and the support force at the face in dry sand were investigated. The observed displacement patterns show a negligible influence of overburden on the extent and evolution of the failure zone. The latter is significantly influenced, though, by the initial density of the sand: in dense sand a chimney-wedge-type collapse mechanism developed, which propagated towards the soil surface. Initially, loose sand did not show any discrete collapse mechanism. The necessary support force was neither influenced by the overburden nor the initial density. A comparison with quantitative predictions by several theoretical models showed that the measured necessary support pressure is overestimated by most of the models. Those by Vermeer/Ruse and Léca/Dormieux showed the best agreement to the measurements.
This paper proposes an approach to the choice and evaluation of engineering models with the aid of a typical application in geotechnics. An important issue in the construction of shallow tunnels, especially in weak ground conditions, is the tunnel face stability. Various theoretical and numerical models for predicting the necessary support pressure have been put forth in the literature. In this paper, we combine laboratory experiments performed at the University of Innsbruck with current methods of uncertainty and sensitivity analysis for assessing adequacy, predictive power and robustness of the models. The major issues are the handling of the twofold uncertainty of test results and of model predictions as well as the decision about what are the influential input parameters.
Latente Steuern stellen eine Schnittstelle zwischen handelsrechtlicher Rechnungslegung und Steuerrecht dar. Das Verhältnis von Handels- und Steuerrecht ist dabei keinesfalls stetig; vielmehr fordert die Dynamik des deutschen Steuerrechts in vielen Bereichen regelmäßige Anpassungen in der Bilanzierung in Handels- und Steuerbilanz. Dies gilt insbesondere für die Bilanzierung latenter Steuern im handelsrechtlichen Jahresabschluss, welche durch das BilMoG deutlich an Bedeutung gewonnen hat. Neben latenten Steuern auf temporäre Differenzen ist es nunmehr erforderlich, Verlustvorträge und die Folgen der Zinsschranke bei der Berechnung latenter Steuern zu berücksichtigen. Der nachfolgende Beitrag geht auf die Berücksichtigung von Verlust- und Zinsvorträgen und die Berücksichtigungsfähigkeit von EBITDA-Vorträgen bei der Berechnung latenter Steuern ein und beleuchtet dabei insbesondere auch praktische Fragestellungen.
In den letzten drei bis vier Jahren unterlag der Bereich der Bilanzierung und Offenlegung von unsicheren Steuerpositionen im IFRS- und US-GAAP-Abschluss einem stetigen Wandel. Sowohl nach US-GAAP als auch nach IFRS nehmen die Anforderungen an die Bilanzierung und Offenlegung beständig zu. Schon allein dies zeigt die Bedeutung, die dem Themenbereich der Steuerrisiken beigemessen wird. Aber nicht nur im Rahmen der Berichterstattung im Jahresabschluss stehen Steuerrisiken oben auf der Agenda, auch der amerikanische Internal Revenue Service (IRS) verfolgt das Thema sehr konsequent und plant, bestimmte Unternehmen zu Angaben von Steuerrisiken im Rahmen der Steuererklärungen zu verpflichten.
Der Aufsatz befasst sich mit den neueren Entwicklungen im Bereich der Bilanzierung und Offenlegung von unsicheren Steuerpositionen in der Rechnungslegung nach IFRS, US-GAAP und HGB und der Offenlegung von Steuerrisiken im Rahmen der Steuererklärung.
Eine SPS im Kraftfahrzeug? Das geht ja gar nicht – da gibt es doch all die Hersteller für Kfz-Steuergeräte, die konfigurierbare Hardware anbieten. Im Prinzip ja, aber leider sind gerade die Sensoren oder Aktoren nicht ansteuerbar, die der Entwickler genau für sein aktuelles Projekt benötigt. Dieser Beitrag gibt einen kleinen Einblick in neue Möglichkeiten des Rapid Prototyping für mechatronische Systeme auf der Basis von Speicherprogrammierbaren Steuerungen (SPS).
The continuously growing amount of renewable sources starts compromising the stability of electrical grids. Contradictory to fossil fuel power plants, energy production of wind and photovoltaic (PV) energy is fluctuating. Although predictions have significantly improved, an outage of multi-MW offshore wind farms poses a challenging problem. One solution could be the integration of storage systems in the grid. After a short overview, this paper focuses on two exemplary battery storage systems, including the required power electronics. The grid integration, as well as the optimal usage of volatile energy reserves, is presented for a 5- kW PV system for home application, as well as for a 100- MW medium-voltage system, intended for wind farm usage. The efficiency and cost of topologies are investigated as a key parameter for large-scale integration of renewable power at medium- and low-voltage.
Fast response of Scots pine to improved water availability reflected in tree-ring width and δ13C
(2010)
Drought-induced forest decline, like the Scots pine mortality in inner-Alpine valleys, will gain in importance as the frequency and severity of drought events are expected to increase. To understand how chronic drought affects tree growth and tree-ring δ13C values, we studied mature Scots pine in an irrigation experiment in an inner-Alpine valley. Tree growth and isotope analyses were carried out at the annual and seasonal scale. At the seasonal scale, maximum δ13C values were measured after the hottest and driest period of the year, and were associated with decreasing growth rates. Inter-annual δ13C values in early- and latewood showed a strong correlation with annual climatic conditions and an immediate decrease as a response to irrigation. This indicates a tight coupling between wood formation and the freshly produced assimilates for trees exposed to chronic drought. This rapid appearance of the isotopic signal is a strong indication for an immediate and direct transfer of newly synthesized assimilates for biomass production. The fast appearance and the distinct isotopic signal suggest a low availability of old stored carbohydrates. If this was a sign for C-storage depletion, an increasing mortality could be expected when stressors increase the need for carbohydrate for defence, repair or regeneration.
• Most of the edible forest mushrooms are mycorrhizal and depend on carbohydrates produced by the associated trees. Fruiting patterns of these fungi are not yet fully understood since climatic factors alone do not completely explain mushroom occurrence.
• The objective of this study was to retrospectively find out if changing tree growth following an increment thinning has influenced the diversity patterns and productivity of associated forest mushrooms in the fungus reserve La Chanéaz, Switzerland.
• The results reveal a clear temporal relationship between the thinning, the growth reaction of trees and the reaction of the fungal community, especially for the ectomycorrhizal species. The tree-ring width of the formerly suppressed beech trees and the fruit body number increased after thinning, leading to a significantly positive correlation between fruit body numbers and tree-ring width.
• Fruit body production was influenced by previous annual tree growth, the best accordance was found between fruit body production and the tree-ring width two years previously.
• The results support the hypothesis that ectomycorrhizal fruit body production must be linked with the growth of the associated host trees. Moreover, the findings indicate the importance of including mycorrhizal fungi as important players when discussing a tree as a carbon source or sink.
Studying global change through investigation of the plastic responses of xylem anatomy in tree rings
(2010)
Variability in xylem anatomy is of interest to plant scientists because of the role water transport plays in plant performance and survival. Insights into plant adjustments to changing environmental conditions have mainly been obtained through structural and functional comparative studies between taxa or within taxa on contrasting sites or along environmental gradients. Yet, a gap exists regarding the study of hydraulic adjustments in response to environmental changes over the lifetimes of plants. In trees, dated tree-ring series are often exploited to reconstruct dynamics in ecological conditions, and recent work in which wood-anatomical variables have been used in dendrochronology has produced promising results. Environmental signals identified in water-conducting cells carry novel information reflecting changes in regional conditions and are mostly related to short, sub-annual intervals. Although the idea of investigating environmental signals through wood anatomical time series goes back to the 1960s, it is only recently that low-cost computerized image-analysis systems have enabled increased scientific output in this field. We believe that the study of tree-ring anatomy is emerging as a promising approach in tree biology and climate change research, particularly if complemented by physiological and ecological studies. This contribution presents the rationale, the potential, and the methodological challenges of this innovative approach.