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In the context of the Solvency II directive, the operation of an internal risk model is a possible way for risk assessment and for the determination of the solvency capital requirement of an insurance company in the European Union. A Monte Carlo procedure is customary to generate a model output. To be compliant with the directive, validation of the internal risk model is conducted on the basis of the model output. For this purpose, we suggest a new test for checking whether there is a significant change in the modeled solvency capital requirement. Asymptotic properties of the test statistic are investigated and a bootstrap approximation is justified. A simulation study investigates the performance of the test in the finite sample case and confirms the theoretical results. The internal risk model and the application of the test is illustrated in a simplified example. The method has more general usage for inference of a broad class of law-invariant and coherent risk measures on the basis of a paired sample.
Test-retest reliability of the internal shoulder rotator muscles' stretch reflex in healthy men
(2021)
Until now the reproducibility of the short latency stretch reflex of the internal rotator muscles of the glenohumeral joint has not been identified. Twenty-three healthy male participants performed three sets of external shoulder rotation stretches with various pre-activation levels on two different dates of measurement to assess test-retest reliability. All stretches were applied with a dynamometer acceleration of 104°/s2 and a velocity of 150°/s. Electromyographical response was measured via surface EMG. Reflex latencies showed a pre-activation effect (ƞ2 = 0,355). ICC ranged from 0,735 to 0,909 indicating an overall “good” relative reliability. SRD 95% lay between ±7,0 to ±12,3 ms.. The reflex gain showed overall poor test-retest reproducibility. The chosen methodological approach presented a suitable test protocol for shoulder muscles stretch reflex latency evaluation. A proof-of-concept study to validate the presented methodical approach in shoulder involvement including subjects with clinically relevant conditions is recommended.
Stretch-shortening type actions are characterized by lengthening of the pre-activated muscle-tendon unit (MTU) in the eccentric phase immediately followed by muscle shortening. Under 1 g, pre-activity before and muscle activity after ground contact, scale muscle stiffness, which is crucial for the recoil properties of the MTU in the subsequent push-off. This study aimed to examine the neuro-mechanical coupling of the stretch-shortening cycle in response to gravity levels ranging from 0.1 to 2 g. During parabolic flights, 17 subjects performed drop jumps while electromyography (EMG) of the lower limb muscles was combined with ultrasound images of the gastrocnemius medialis, 2D kinematics and kinetics to depict changes in energy management and performance. Neuro-mechanical coupling in 1 g was characterized by high magnitudes of pre-activity and eccentric muscle activity allowing an isometric muscle behavior during ground contact. EMG during pre-activity and the concentric phase systematically increased from 0.1 to 1 g. Below 1 g the EMG in the eccentric phase was diminished, leading to muscle lengthening and reduced MTU stretches. Kinetic energy at take-off and performance were decreased compared to 1 g. Above 1 g, reduced EMG in the eccentric phase was accompanied by large MTU and muscle stretch, increased joint flexion amplitudes, energy loss and reduced performance. The energy outcome function established by linear mixed model reveals that the central nervous system regulates the extensor muscles phase- and load-specifically. In conclusion, neuro-mechanical coupling appears to be optimized in 1 g. Below 1 g, the energy outcome is compromised by reduced muscle stiffness. Above 1 g, loading progressively induces muscle lengthening, thus facilitating energy dissipation.
Through a mirror darkly – On the obscurity of teaching goals in game-based learning in IT security
(2021)
Teachers and instructors use very specific language communicating teaching goals. The most widely used frameworks of common reference are the Bloom’s Taxonomy and the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. The latter provides distinction of 209 different teaching goals which are connected to methods. In Competence Developing Games (CDGs - serious games to convey knowledge) and in IT security education, a two- or three level typology exists, reducing possible learning outcomes to awareness, training, and education. This study explores whether this much simpler framework succeeds in achieving the same range of learning outcomes. Method wise a keyword analysis was conducted. The results were threefold: 1. The words used to describe teaching goals in CDGs on IT security education do not reflect the whole range of learning outcomes. 2. The word choice is nevertheless different from common language, indicating an intentional use of language. 3. IT security CDGs use different sets of terms to describe learning outcomes, depending on whether they are awareness, training, or education games. The interpretation of the findings is that the reduction to just three types of CDGs reduces the capacity to communicate and think about learning outcomes and consequently reduces the outcomes that are intentionally achieved.
Most drugs are no longer produced in their own countries by the pharmaceutical companies, but by contract manufacturers or at manufacturing sites in countries that can produce more cheaply. This not only makes it difficult to trace them back but also leaves room for criminal organizations to fake them unnoticed. For these reasons, it is becoming increasingly difficult to determine the exact origin of drugs. The goal of this work was to investigate how exactly this is possible by using different spectroscopic methods like nuclear magnetic resonance and near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy in combination with multivariate data analysis. As an example, 56 out of 64 different paracetamol preparations, collected from 19 countries around the world, were chosen to investigate whether it is possible to determine the pharmaceutical company, manufacturing site, or country of origin. By means of suitable pre-processing of the spectra and the different information contained in each method, principal component analysis was able to evaluate manufacturing relationships between individual companies and to differentiate between production sites or formulations. Linear discriminant analysis showed different results depending on the spectral method and purpose. For all spectroscopic methods, it was found that the classification of the preparations to their manufacturer achieves better results than the classification to their pharmaceutical company. The best results were obtained with nuclear magnetic resonance and near-infrared data, with 94.6%/99.6% and 98.7/100% of the spectra of the preparations correctly assigned to their pharmaceutical company or manufacturer.
Geochemical characterisation of hypersaline waters is difficult as high concentrations of salts hinder the analysis of constituents at low concentrations, such as trace metals, and the collection of samples for trace metal analysis in natural waters can be easily contaminated. This is particularly the case if samples are collected by non-conventional techniques such as those required for aquatic subglacial environments. In this paper we present the first analysis of a subglacial brine from Taylor Valley, (~ 78°S), Antarctica for the trace metals: Ba, Co, Mo, Rb, Sr, V, and U. Samples were collected englacially using an electrothermal melting probe called the IceMole. This probe uses differential heating of a copper head as well as the probe’s sidewalls and an ice screw at the melting head to move through glacier ice. Detailed blanks, meltwater, and subglacial brine samples were collected to evaluate the impact of the IceMole and the borehole pump, the melting and collection process, filtration, and storage on the geochemistry of the samples collected by this device. Comparisons between melt water profiles through the glacier ice and blank analysis, with published studies on ice geochemistry, suggest the potential for minor contributions of some species Rb, As, Co, Mn, Ni, NH4+, and NO2−+NO3− from the IceMole. The ability to conduct detailed chemical analyses of subglacial fluids collected with melting probes is critical for the future exploration of the hundreds of deep subglacial lakes in Antarctica.