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In the preceeding chapters on “Son of Concorde, a Technology Challenge” and “Aerodynamic Multipoint Design Challenge” it was explained, that a well balanced contribution of new technologies in all major disciplines is required for realisation of a new Supersonic Commercial Transport (SCT). One of these technologies - usually one of the most important for aircraft-is aerodynamics. Here, the required “pure” aerodynamic technologies are specified in more detail, according to our present knowledge. Increasing insight into the problems may change the balance of importance of the individual technologies and may require some more contributions. We must never confine our knowledge to the knowledge base of an expert at a given time, but must stay open for new insights.
Since certification of Concorde new certification standards were introduced including many new regulations to improve flight safety. Most of these standards are to prevent severe accidents in the future which happened in the past (here: after Concorde’s certification). A new SCT has to fulfill these standards, although Concorde had none of these accidents. But accidents - although they sometimes occurred only for a specific aircraft type - have to be avoided for any (new) aircraft. Because of existing aircraft without typical accident types having demonstrated their reliability, they are allowed to go on based on their old certification; although sometimes new rules prevent accident types which are not connected to specific aircraft types - like e.g. evacuation rules. Anyway, Concorde is allowed to fly based on its old certification, and hopefully in the future will fly as safely as in the past. But a new SCT has to fulfill updated rules like any other aircraft, and it has to be “just another aircraft” [75].
Supersonic laminar flow
(1997)
Supersonic transports are very drag sensitive. Technology to reduce drag by application of laminar flow, therefore, will be important; it is a prerequisite to achieve very long range capability. In earlier studies it was assumed that SCTs would only become possible by application of laminar flow [376]. But today, we request an SCT to be viable without application of laminar flow in order to maintain its competitiveness when laminar flow becomes available for subsonic and supersonic transports. By reducing fuel burned, laminar flow drag reduction reduces size and weight of the aircraft, or increases range capability -whereas otherwise size and weight would grow towards infinity. Transition mechanisms from laminar to turbulent state of the boundary layer flow (ALT, CFI, TSI) function as for transonic transports, but at more severe conditions: higher sweep angles, cooled surfaces; higher mode instabilities (HMI) must at least be taken into account, although they may not become important below Mach 3. Hitherto there is a worldwide lack of ground test facilities to investigate TSI at the expected cruise Mach numbers between 1.6 and 2.4; in Stuttgart, Germany one such facility -a Ludwieg tube- is still in the validation phase. A quiet Ludwieg tunnel could be a favourable choice for Europe. But it will require a new approach in designing aircraft which includes improved theoretical predictions, usage of classical wind tunnels for turbulent flow and flight tests for validation.
Concorde (Figure 9) is the only supersonic airliner which has been introduced into regular passenger service. It is still in service at British Airways and Air France without any flight accidents, and probably will stay in service for at least for ten more years.
The technology programme “Reduction of aerodynamic drag (RaWid)” for high speed aerodynamics at Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus is sponsered by the German ministry for education, research and technology since July 1, 1995. Connected to this industrial programme are the cooperation programmes “MEGAFLOW” under leadership of the DLR and “Transition” by the DFG, and several contributions by DLR and universities.
The programme is oriented towards technologies required for a MEGALINER which gains momentum by the ambitious plans for a new large Airbus A3XX.
In the first year new technological steps were undertaken in theory, design and experiment. Some critical steps were verified by wing designs checked in wind tunnel tests.
Today the most accurate and cost effective industrial codes used in aircraft design are based on the full potential equation coupled with boundary layer equations. However, these are not capable to solve complicated three-dimensional problems of vortical flows and shocks. On the other hand Euler and Navier-Stokes codes are too expensive and not accurate enough for design purposes, especially in regard of drag and interference prediction. The reasons for these deficiencies are investigated and a way to overcome them by future developments is demonstrated.
Wind loads have great impact on many engineering structures. Wind storms often cause irreparable damage to the buildings which are exposed to it. Along with the earthquakes, wind represents one of the most common environmental load on structures and is relevant for limit state design. Modern wind codes indicate calculation procedures allowing engineers to deal with structural systems, which are susceptible to conduct wind-excited oscillations. In the codes approximate formulas for wind buffeting are specified which relate the dynamic problem to rather abstract parameter functions. The complete theory behind is not visible in order to simplify the applicability of the procedures. This chapter derives the underlying basic relations of the spectral method for wind buffeting and explains the main important applications of it in order to elucidate part of the theoretical background of computations after the new codes. The stochasticity of the wind processes is addressed, and the analysis of analytical as well as measurement based power spectra is outlined. Short MATLAB codes are added to the Appendix 3 which carry out the computation of a single sided auto-spectrum from a statistically stationary, discrete stochastic process. Two examples are presented.
Bio-feedstocks
(2011)
Around 60% of the paper worldwide is made from recovered paper. Especially adhesive contaminants, so called stickies, reduce paper quality. To remove stickies but at the same time keep as many valuable fibers as possible, multi-stage screening systems with several interconnected pressure screens are used. When planning such systems, suitable screens have to be selected and their interconnection as well as operational parameters have to be defined considering multiple conflicting objectives. In this contribution, we present a Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Program to optimize system layout, component selection and operation to find a suitable trade-off between output quality and yield.
This work describes a procedure to yield attenuation maps from MR images which are used for the absorption correction (AC) of brain PET data. Such an approach could be mandatory for future combined PET and MRI scanners, which probably do not include a transmission facility. T1-weighted MR images were segmented into brain tissue, bone, soft tissue, and sinus; attenuation coefficients corresponding to elemental composition and density as well as to 511 keV photon energy were respectively assigned. Attenuation maps containing up to four compartments were created and forward projected into sinograms with attenuation factors which then were used for AC during reconstruction of FDG-PET data. The commonly used AC based on a radioactive (68Ge) transmission scan served as reference. The reconstructed radioactivity values obtained with the MRI-based AC were about 20% lower than those obtained with PET-based AC if the skull was not taken into account. Considering the skull the difference was still about 10%. Our investigations demonstrate the feasibility of a MRI-based AC, but revealed also the necessity of a satisfying delineation of bone thickness which tends to be underestimated in our first approach of T1-weighted MR image segmentation.
Cyber-physical systems are ever more common in manufacturing industries. Increasing their autonomy has been declared an explicit goal, for example, as part of the Industry 4.0 vision. To achieve this system intelligence, principled and software-driven methods are required to analyze sensing data, make goal-directed decisions, and eventually execute and monitor chosen tasks. In this chapter, we present a number of knowledge-based approaches to these problems and case studies with in-depth evaluation results of several different implementations for groups of autonomous mobile robots performing in-house logistics in a smart factory. We focus on knowledge-based systems because besides providing expressive languages and capable reasoning techniques, they also allow for explaining how a particular sequence of actions came about, for example, in the case of a failure.
A new trend in automation is to deploy so-called cyber-physical systems (CPS) which combine computation with physical processes. The novel RoboCup Logistics League Sponsored by Festo (LLSF) aims at such CPS logistic scenarios in an automation setting. A team of robots has to produce products from a number of semi-finished products which they have to machine during the game. Different production plans are possible and the robots need to recycle scrap byproducts. This way, the LLSF is a very interesting league offering a number of challenging research questions for planning, coordination, or communication in an application-driven scenario. In this paper, we outline the objectives of the LLSF and present steps for developing the league further towards a benchmark for logistics scenarios for CPS. As a major milestone we present the new automated referee system which helps in governing the game play as well as keeping track of the scored points in a very complex factory scenario.
This chapter describes three general strategies to master uncertainty in technical systems: robustness, flexibility and resilience. It builds on the previous chapters about methods to analyse and identify uncertainty and may rely on the availability of technologies for particular systems, such as active components. Robustness aims for the design of technical systems that are insensitive to anticipated uncertainties. Flexibility increases the ability of a system to work under different situations. Resilience extends this characteristic by requiring a given minimal functional performance, even after disturbances or failure of system components, and it may incorporate recovery. The three strategies are described and discussed in turn. Moreover, they are demonstrated on specific technical systems.
IT Products are viewed and managed differently depending on the perspectives and the stage within the life cycle. A model is presented that integrates different perspectives and stages serving as an aid for the analysis of business models and focused positioning of IT-products. Four generic business models are analysed with regard to the product management function in general and the positioning field for IT-products specifically: off-the-shelf (license), license plus service, project, and system service (incl. cloud computing).